Factors Increasing Extinction Rates in Giant Panda Populations

Factors Increasing Extinction Rates in Giant Panda Populations Ailuropoda melanoleuca otherwise known as the Giant Panda is categorised as an endangered species on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN, 2007a). This means that this is an animal which is at a very high risk of facing extinction, i.e. the species will die off. This has been a main concern for conservation since the 1950s, as at present there are approximately one thousand and six hundred giant pandas living on earth today (Yiming et. al, 2002). There are many reasons which have caused a such decline in populations of Giant panda such as their reliance on mainly bamboo, low reproduction rates, hunting and most importantly habitat destruction. All of these factors have played a key part in pushing our much loved animals to smaller and smaller numbers. WWF, (2011a) states that 30,000 sq km of forest in China is solely protected for pandas. This means that 80% of wild panda are highly protected by the Chinese government (WWF, 2011a), but why are numbers still decreasing? This essay will discuss what these factors are and how they are affecting the populations and communities of A. melanoleuca. Currently there are programmes being carried out to help conserve this species and increase numbers but are these really working? Why are there still so many few Giant pandas living on earth today? And can our conservation efforts help prevent this species from going in to extinction? To answer these questions we must look at each factor and how these are being dealt with. The Giant Panda inhabits South Central China and ranges from six isolated mountains in the Gansu, Sichuan and Shaanxi Provinces (IUCN, 2007b). Currently, this species is on the Appendix 1 CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) List (CITES, 2011a). This means that giant pandas cannot be traded internationally except in circumstances in which the reason for trading is for scientific research (CITES, 2011b). This is because this species is critically endangered and is at a high risk of extinction. The prohibition of trade will prevent giant pandas being removed from their natural habitats and reduce extinction rates in this species. Despite being biologically carnivorous, A. melanoleuca has an herbivorous diet consisting primarily of bamboo (Dierenfield et. al, 1982). In fact it is estimated that 99% of the Giant Pandas diet comprises of this food source (Schaller et. al, 1985, cited in Carter et. al, 1999). Therefore, habitat locations are very dependent on the distribution and availability of bamboo (Xuezhi et. al, 2008). There is a wide variety of bamboo which is consumed by the giant panda which consists of sixty different types with thirty-five of those containing their primary food sources (Hu, Wei, 2004, cited in IUCN, 2007b). By limiting their diet to mainly bamboo, the giant panda is at risk of eventual starvation. This is because in every fifteen to one hundred and twenty years, there is a bamboo die-off cycle which naturally occurs (Calhoun, 2005). Once this die-off occurs in the bamboo (depending on which species), the time it takes to grow to a level which can feed a full population of giant panda can be up to twenty years, thus many pandas are starved and may die due to this (Calhoun, 2005). Examples of this would be two of the main species of bamboo which are eaten by the giant panda; Arrow and Umbrella. It takes on average between forty and fifty years for Arrow bamboo to flower and for Umbrella bamboo this process takes approximately one hundred years (Franzen, 2003). Once these species and others eventually die off, giant pandas will need to search for a replacement and if unsuccessful, will starve to death and may face extinction. In the event of certain types of bamboo species dying off, conservation plans must be in place. In recent years, conservationists have been putting in place corridors between panda populations and areas which have bamboo which is not being fed on which can be suitable for feeding (Carter et. al, 1999). This type of programme is also being done to create corridors between different populations of panda also (Carter et. al, 1999). It was also suggested by Carter et. al, 1999, that these corridors should be a long term solution as the carrying capacity (the maximum population size a species can reach) of the giant panda can take up to two hundred years! Another factor which has had a negative impact on the population sizes of pandas is their vulnerability to poaching. This is when they are hunted (by humans) in the wild for their skins and skulls (Yiming et. al, 2002). To assess what effect poaching is having on the giant panda; population viability analysis (PVA) is required. PVA takes into account a range of ecological and environmental factors to evaluate the risks and threats to particular species. This allows planning for conservation and allows us to identify levels of threats to a given species (Yiming, et. al, 2002). By using PVA, Yiming et. al, 2002, found that even without the effects of poaching to giant pandas, population numbers were still very low. This is quite worrying as this means that although poaching is highly threatening, other factors are still pushing the species towards extinction. Results from Yiming et. al, 2002, experiments found that with the increase of poaching of the giant panda, a large decrease in p opulation size and a higher extinction rate was the result. Their experiments also compared poaching between the two sexes. They found that poaching in females was found to have a more negative impact on the extinction rate as they would appear to have a higher extinction rate than males, despite the intensity of poaching being the exact same. This comparison was mirrored in the analysis comparing adult and young pandas (i.e. Adults had a higher extinction rate). Therefore, Yiming et. al, 2002, highlighted that although the giant panda is naturally facing extinction due to many factors, poaching can significantly increase the extinction rate in populations. However, in recent years, the market for panda skins and incidents of poaching has began to decrease and is now no longer a key threat to the population of the giant panda (IUCN, 2007b). Reducing illegal capture and killing of the giant panda has been very successful due to training conservationists to patrol areas in which pandas are at risk (WWF, 2011b). The WWF began this training in 1996 and had more than three hundred people trained within four years. Above this, cameras have been installed on sites in which the giant panda inhabits. This allows trained staff to see how the pandas live naturally and can plan ahead on useful conservation programmes to prevent extinction occurring (WWF, 2011b). A. melanoleuca have a k-strategy approach when it comes to reproduction (Linderman et. al, 2004). This is because females do not begin to mate until they are approximately four or five years old and will only give birth to a small number of cubs (this can be as little as one or two young) (WWF China, 2011). If food is scarce (i.e. due to bamboo die-off) then the chance of the survival of cubs is very slim. Another factor which affects the reproductivity in the giant panda population is pandas in captivity. It has been found that giant pandas in captivity are not breeding well and it has been suggested that they find it difficult to mate in the presence of humans. This is because they are not in their natural environment (WWF China, 2011). The major threat to giant panda communities which is increasing extinction rates is habitat loss. Habitat loss is due to human impacts in which the giant pandas habitats have been destroyed by logging, agriculture and the development of hydropower amongst many other things (WWF, 2011c). Research published in 2008 by Xeuzhi et. al stated that agriculture was the most threatening human impact on reducing habitat sizes in panda populations. This is because farmland is usually located near human settlements which affect pandas directly. Also, as pandas are required to consume clean drinking water every day to survive, they tend to avoid large rivers. This is because large rivers are usually nearby to human settlements, in which the water will be highly polluted (Xuezhi et. al, 2008). Therefore, human impacts are limiting where panda communities can live. Fragmentation of the giant pandas habitat is also a factor contributing towards increasing the extinction rate. This has been due to ag ain, human impact as the Chinese economy has being growing exponentially (WWF China, 2009). As habitat destruction and fragmentation are the major issues impacting the giant panda population it is highly important that we try to reverse these effects as human activity is responsible for this. An example of an area which has been badly affected is Jiuzhai ring road in the Minshan Reserve Region (Xuezhi et. al, 2008). This has a high number of traffic daily and has caused the nearby community of pandas to become remote (Xuezhi et. al, 2008). It was suggested by Xuezhi et. al, 2008 that in order to prevent further damage to panda communities, the amount of human activity had to be reduced. This same idea was suggested for the Jiuzhai ring road by reducing traffic daily. In conclusion, it is clear to see that the future of giant panda populations and communities is critical and will remain so unless great changes are made. This is mainly down to human impacts which have negatively affected population numbers by destroying habitats, removing this species from its natural environment (captive breeding) and poaching. However, the giant pandas specialised diet is also pushing this species towards extinction as they are at risk of starvation. Despite this, programmes are in place to help restore habitats by creating corridors to new sources of bamboo and monitoring to prevent poaching. However, at the moment it is very difficult to determine whether or not the extinction of A. melanoleuca will be sooner rather than later. In short, the future of the giant panda is uncertain.

Psychoanalytic Model Paper Essay

When we talk about Psychoanalytic theory the first name that comes to mind is Sigmund Freud. Even though they are other psychologists that contributed to psychoanalytic theory and its development, Sigmund Freud is known for being the founder of this theory. He is famous for his work on sexual bias of neurosis, his study of hysteria, childhood seduction controversy, and dream analysis, among other theories like id, ego, and superego. Psychoanalytic Theory is the theory of the unconscious mind, and the personality development. Another concept, that helped shape psychoanalysis, is the early ideas of psychopathology. Like any other theory, there is always criticism, and other psychologists that do not share the same view. In Freud’s case, he was criticized for his way of collecting and recording data from his sessions with patients. Also for his theory of women having penis envy, and that he focused on the past behaviors instead of paying attention to the patient’s goals, future hopes, and motivations. Psychoanalytic Theory focuses on the study of the unconscious and abnormal behavior. Three of the major influences of psychoanalysis were philosophical speculations about the unconscious, early ideas about psychopathology, and other evolutionary theory. The theory of the unconscious mind is that it is a big influence in our life whether we are sleeping or awake. Freud’s speculated that our actions were a manifestation of the unconscious consequence of childhood  experience or emotion. It was Fechner that used the analogy that the unconscious mind is like an iceberg. This analogy helped inspire some of Freud’s work so much that he even quoted Fechner is some of his writings. There were other psychologists before Freud that suggested the theory of the unconscious mind; however Freud claimed that he found a way to study it scientifically. According to Freud, the unconscious mind slips and exposes our true thoughts, desires, emotions and behavior in dreams. This is known as the Freudian slip. Psychopathology also had a great influence on the development of Psychoanalysis. The study of mental illness dates back to 2000BC. The Babylonians believed that mental illness was the cause of demon possession and that the only treatment was thru magic and prayer. The Hebrews also believed that the cure for mental illness was thru magic and prayer. They also believed that the cause of mental illness was the cause of sins. The great Greek philosophers believed that mental illness was the cause of the disorder of thought process. The treatment was the power of the healing word. In other words, they believed that therapy was the answer to mental illness. When Christianity became popular they convinced the people that mental illness was the result of the evil spirits sending us back to 2000BC mentality. The only difference is that the Christian Church believed that the only way to get rid of evil spirits and possessions was thru torture and execution. It wasn’t until the eighteen century that mental illness was considered as a behavioral problem. People displaying irrational behavior were sent to an asylum also known as the cemetery for the still breathing. This inspired other psychiatrists to find forms of treatment for the mentally ill. The Emmanuel Movement focused on talk therapy sessions. Elwood Worcester believed that psychological issues can be in some cases the cause of mental illness. The movement became so popular that when Freud came to the United Sates with the concept of psychoanalysis they welcomed him with opened arms. Sigmund Freud is believed to be the father of psychoanalytic theories. His research was based on his theories about the conscious and unconscious mind. He believed that our actions, emotions, and true thoughts are stored deep in our unconscious. He actually got inspired by Fechner’s analogy that the mind is like an iceberg. The part that is above water represents the conscious mind, and the part that is deep in the water is the unconscious mind. Freud strongly believed that our deepest desires were stored in the mind, and no divine power could change that  not even religion. He liked using the free association technique by letting his patients talk about whatever came to mind. Freud believed that by letting the patients express their thoughts they would uncover repressed memories that were the cause of their behavior. He noticed that his patients talked about childhood suppressed memories that involved sexual issues. At first he thought that his patient’s neurosis was caused by childhood trauma of sexual abuses. Later he suspected that they were fantasies that his patients were reporting and not the actual abuse. One of his theories is that all sons have a sexual attraction towards the mother and all girls towards the father. Freud published a paper talking about his theory of childhood seduction. This paper created so much controversy that some people were angry, and other had mixed emotions. Freud believed that sexual frustration was the cause of neurosis. He was actually obsessed with the subject because of sex because of the lack of sex in his life. By analyzing his dreams he realized that the unconscious mind can manifest thru dreams. Years later he published a book â€Å"The Interpretation of Dreams† (1900). Even though Sigmund Freud’s is considered the father of psychoanalysis it was Charles Darwin’s work that inspired Freud. Most of his views came from Darwin’s ideas on psychoanalysis like the meaning of dreams, the unconscious mind, sexual arousal, and even childhood development. Frank J. Sulloway was a recognized historian of science, and he found that Freud’s way of thinking  was inspired by Darwin. â€Å"What Sulloway did was to check the books in Freud’s personal library, where he found copies of Darwin’s works. Freud had read them all and had written notes in the margins.†(Schultz, D 1969 pg293). Even though Freud contributed to the field of psychoanalysis there was criticism of his work. Some scholars believe that his work was reliable due to poor record keeping. â€Å"He did not make a verbatim transcript of each patient’s words but worked from notes made several hours after seeing the patient† (Schultz, D 1969 pg315). This means that his notes of the sessions with his  patients were compromised by his opinions and ideas. I can see way people would be concerned with his methods of data collection. There is a chance that he misunderstood what his patients were telling him. For example, when my husband and I have an argument there’s time when I misinterpreted what he said. My recollection of the argument is different from his recollection of the argument. In his case, it is important to have the most accurate information. Other scholars believed that he influenced the patient’s answers and only heard what he wanted to hear. â€Å"Examination of the actual cases referred to by Freud reveals not a single instance in which this was the case. There is no evidence that any patient ever told Freud she had been seduced by her father. This is nothing more than an inference on Freud’s part. (Kihlstorm, 1994, p.683)† (Schultz, D 1969, pg316). Concerns about the credibility of his work arose because of inconsistencies with his research, his notes, and the work he published. His work was limited to just a number of people and considered incomplete. There were other psychologists that also contributed to the development of Psychoanalysis. Carl Jung worked closely with Freud but after 1914, he developed the idea of analytical psychology. This was his own version of what psychoanalysis should be and opposed some of Freud’s work. Jung believed that what shape our personality are our goals, hopes and aspirations and not just childhood experiences like Freud suggested.  Personality can change with time. During our lifetime, we can experience several personalities depending on the experiences and the level of maturity. This means that you are not the same person you were in high school. As time passes you learn from your experiences and adapt to your environment as it changes. One of Jung’s theories is that the unconscious mind is formed by two levels. One is the personal level where all the memories, wishes, faint perceptions and suppressed memories are. The second form of unconscious is the collective unconscious this is where all the universal and  evolutionary experiences are. For example, the need and instinct to survive that gets passed on for generations. He also referred to this as archetypes of the collective unconscious. â€Å"We typically experience archetype in the form of emotions associated with significant life events such as birth, adolescence, marriage, and death or with reactions to stream danger.† (Schultz, D 1969, pg.327). He also suggested the theories of introversion and extraversion along with the types of functions and attitudes. Another psychologist, that also made a great contribution to psychoanalysis, was Alfred Adler. Like Jung, Adler did not share Freud’s views on the Oedipus complex. Adler was more interested in the conscious mind than the unconscious mind. He also believed that our plans for the future are the ones that influenced behavior and not the past experiences. Some of his theories are the creative power of the Self and that the order in which we are born matters. Karen Horney also contributed to the development of psychoanalysis. She had many disagreements with Freud’s theories except for the unconscious motivations. She did not share Freud’s view that women had penis envy; instead she suggested that man had womb envy. These psychologists helped developed psychoanalysis. They all brought interesting and exciting new ideas to the table. These theories helped shaped and develop psychoanalysis. Even though Sigmund  Freud is considered the father of psychoanalysis the one that pave the way for others to follow, in fact, it was Charles Darwin how inspired Freud theories. It was Darwin who paved the way for psychoanalysis, but Sigmund brought attention to it by claiming he found a scientific way to study the unconscious mind. Freud had many theories some were accepted by scholars, other theories were not. For example, Childhood seduction caused controversy, and some psychologists did not share his view of the Oedipus complex. Even his method of collecting data was criticized causing doubts about the credibility of his work. The one thing they did agree on  was of the existence of the unconscious mind and how it influenced a person’s thoughts, emotions, dreams, personality, and behaviors. Psychoanalysis began with just a philosophical speculation about the unconscious mind. Shaped by the early ideas about psych opathology and developed by evolutionary theories. References Schultz, D. (1969). A history of modern psychology (10e ed.). New York: Academic Cohen, T. (2003). Sigmund freud: The founder of psychoanalysis. School Library Journal, 49(9), 231. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/211726954?accountid=458

Role of Nurse in Community Mental Health - 2115 Words

ROLE OF NURSE IN COMMUNITY MENTAL HEALTH INTRODUCTION The trend in psychiatric care is shifting from that of inpatient hospitalization to a focus of outpatient care within the community. Community mental health services include all those activities in the community connected with mental health other than the institutional or hospitalized setting. The community approach focuses on the total population of defined geographical area rather than individual patient. Emphasis is mainly on preventive services which include provision of a continuous, comprehensive system of services designed to meet all mental health related needs in the community. Mental health care is provided. through education, consultation, brief psychotherapy, crisis†¦show more content†¦The factors which a community mental health nurse should give emphasize are: a.) Biological and Physical factors b) Psychosocial factors c) Sociocultural factors a) Biological and Physical factors The community mental health nurse has a significant role especially in prenatal and postnatal care. It will help in reduction of mental retardation and organic mental disorders. Parents need to be prepared for the acceptance of a new child in the family and should provide minimum facilities for the growth of a child like food, shelter and clothing. b) Psychosocial factors * Physical competencies coordination of muscles, protecting oneself from injuries. * Emotional competencies coping alone at home in the absence of mother for 45 hours will enable the child to develop confidence. * Social competencies opportunities need to be provided for group interaction, socialization with guest and friends so that the child learns to accept his strengths and weakness. c) Sociocultural factors For reducing social isolation, a social support system should be developed. Kaplans hypothesis is that every individual in his life from womb to tomb needs physical support, psychosocial support and sociocultural support. If he is deprived in any one of these areas there is a chance of developing mental disorders. ROLE OF THE NURSE IN THIS ASPECTS ARE : 1) To educate the individual and the family about theShow MoreRelatedPreventing Mental Illness And Substance Abuse Found Among Canada s First Nations Communities1326 Words   |  6 PagesIn interpreting the significance of the disproportionately high rates of mental illness and substance abuse found amongst Canada’s First Nations communities, it is critical to recognize that these groups have been long marginalized, and typically live in remote areas bereft of sophisticated and large-scale health service facilities (Gone Trimble, 2012). 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On Some School Nights, I Have A Rough Time Trying To Fall

On some school nights, I have a rough time trying to fall asleep even though I manage to go to bed early. I twist and turn and eventually pass out at one in the morning. Few hours later, I wake up and experience headaches and stress at home, then a difficult time paying attention and processing information in class. All of these factors were resulted by the lack of sleep, or sleep deprivation. Many more harmful problems can result from sleep deprivation, such as sleep disorders, difficulty driving, and physical and mental effects on students. In which case, students wouldn’t want sleep deprivation affecting their academic grades and education in school. Therefore, students in high school should be allowed to sleep for a longer period of†¦show more content†¦As a final point, students who are experiencing sleep problems daily have a high chance of developing sleep disorders, so they should not be taken lightly. The students who were in middle school couldn’t dri ve, but they can now in high school. Drinking while driving and drowsy driving are common throughout juniors, but especially seniors. Sixth grade students usually get about 8.4 hours of sleep, but high school seniors get only about 6.9 hours (Sohn, Los Angeles Times, 2010). Teenagers need their beauty sleep, or problems arise from sleep deprivation. Only 15% of teens are getting the recommended amount of sleep in the school year, according to the National Sleep Foundation (Sylvester, Current Health Teens, 2011). On their way to school, they are prone to passing out on the road at a turn or tempted to rush and past a yellow light. Drowsy driving is considered to be one of the worst effects for many young adults. Adding on, about 50% of seniors reported of drowsy driving once a week, but 68% of them have driven only once while drowsy. 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